Advances in Sustainable Transportation: A Comparative Study of Electric, Hydrogen, and Hybrid Vehicles

Abstract

The global transportation sector is undergoing a fundamental transformation to mitigate its environmental impact, which contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions and urban air pollution. This comparative study quantitatively evaluates the sustainability performance of three pivotal vehicle technologies: Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCEVs), and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs). The analysis adopts a life-cycle assessment (LCA) framework, integrating parameters for total cost of ownership (TCO), well-to-wheel (WTW) emissions, energy efficiency, and infrastructure requirements. Using a mixed-methods, problem-based methodology, the research models real-world performance across a 10-year lifespan under current and projected energy grid scenarios. The results indicate that BEVs currently offer the highest WTW energy efficiency and the lowest operational emissions in regions with a decarbonized electricity grid, with an average efficiency of 77-86% compared to 30-40% for FCEVs. However, FCEVs demonstrate superior range and refueling times, presenting a compelling case for long-haul freight. PHEVs serve as a transitional technology, reducing emissions by 40-60% over conventional vehicles but remain reliant on fossil fuels. Infrastructure analysis reveals that BEV charging networks are expanding rapidly but face grid load challenges, while hydrogen infrastructure remains nascent and capital-intensive. The study concludes that a diversified strategy is essential; BEVs are optimal for urban and short-haul applications, FCEVs for heavy-duty and long-distance transport, and PHEVs for bridging the gap during infrastructure development. Policymakers must prioritize grid decarbonization and targeted infrastructure investments to realize the full sustainability potential of each technology.